Taxonomy of science education (Mc Cormack and Yager)

 Taxonomy of science education (Mc Cormack and Yager)

Science has been given an important place in the curriculum because of some special values provided only by science & not by any other subjects. The view that the processes of science are important as the product has come into science education. According to the taxonomy of science education formulated by Mc Cormack and Yager science education emphasize five domains. They are:

1.    Knowledge domain (Knowledge & understanding)

2.    Process domain (Exploring & discovering)

3.    Creativity domain (Imaging & creating)

4.    Attitudinal domain (Feeling & valuing)

5.    Application domain (Using & applying)

6.    Nature of science domain (AAAS-1990, American Association for the Advancement of Science)

KNOWLEDGE DOMAIN

Science students are expected to know scientific principles and available scientific facts. It is through science study that a clear idea about universal phenomena, the relation between them and their explanations are gained. The following are primarily included in this domain:

• Facts, Concepts, Rules, Temporary inferences and laws used by scientists currently, Science and social issues. An understanding of this area can be created through experiments and observations, discussions, debates, project activities and references.

PROCESS DOMAIN

A process could be defined as a series of steps that aim at a particular result. The ability to identify new ideas and analyze them to reach a conclusion is termed as process skills. Process skills are developed by collecting ideas and proof and by arriving at conclusions after deeper analysis. Concept formation is an essential factor of not only science study, but the study of all subjects. It is on.

A few important process skills:

• observing

• collecting and recording data

• classifing

• measuring and preparing chart

• explaining and analysing data

• engaging in experiments

• identifying and controlling variables

• raising questions

• arriving at generalisation

• identifying solutions of problems

• formulating hypothesis and examining it

• arriving at conclusions

• taking decisions

• communicating and understanding communication of others

• foretelling and assuming

• handling apparatus

• using number relationship

• using space - time relationship

• predicting

• inferring

• making operational definition

• interpreting data

            Observing

Observation is the process of acquiring knowledge through the five senses. Learning experiences which provide the opportunity to use all the five senses may be used.

            Classifying

The process of grouping information gained through observation, based on salient features is called classifying. The ability to classify will vary according to the age, maturity and cognitive level of the student.

            Using number relationships

This involves the analysis of available data, consolidation and meaningful explanation using the language of mathematics. Learning experiences may provide the opportunity to develop the skills of counting, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and finding averages.

            Measuring & Charting

As part of data collection, the student will have to measure quantities such as length, time, mass, temperature, force and density. What instruments are required for this? How can these instruments be used? What is the level of accuracy expected in measurements? How to record the data? All these are to be considered.

            Using Space-time relationships

An in-depth enquiry relating to shape, distance, movement, speed, accuracy, direction and time comes under this area. It begins from identifying the shape, speed, direction and other such features of objects.

            Communicating and understanding communication

It is essential that knowledge developed is expressed in different ways - oral and written. The students need opportunities to communicate through tables, graphs, pictures, models, short writeups, descriptions and lectures and also to take part in debates and discussions. Clarifying doubts by asking appropriate questions is another skill in this area.

            Predicting

An inquisite person attempts to answer the question "if......... then?" and proceeds to try out the guessed answer. Answer to this question is important in science. The teacher expects the student to predict the outcome of various events and experiments. Students need to develop the skill of predicting by drawing on the knowledge gained through experiments and observations.

            Inferring

A proper inference can be drawn only if the student has good skills of analysis. The defects in analysis of data will affect the quality of inference.

            Making operational definitions

The meaning of ideas need to be stated precisely and clearly to make them useful. This helps in communication. Operational definitions may be incomplete and temporary. But in given situations they can be logical and practical.

            Formulating hypothesis

A hypothesis is a temporary conclusion drawn using insight. A problem can have a number of casual factors and solutions. Based on knowledge and experiences related to the problem, the causes and solutions can be guessed. Such a guess is a hypothesis and need to be tested out and rejected if disproved. Hypotheses which are proved right become conclusions.

            Interpreting data

Interpretation of collected data may lead to new ideas and generalizations. Opportunities may be provided for interpreting data and formation of new ideas.

            Controlling variables

Variables influence the result of experiments. For the experiment to be accurate and scientific the variables are to be effectively controlled.

         

   Experimenting

An experiment is a planned activity to test the validity of hypotheses drawn. Experimentation contains the process skills in an integrated way. It is the main method used by scientists. Formulating methods to test the hypothesis, conducting experiments, recording, interpretation of data and drawing conclusions are included in it.

In the new approach of the curriculum, the student forms ideas and conclusions through processes. Project activities, seminar presentations and experiments enable the student to employ more than one process skill.

CREATIVITY DOMAIN

Science education is considered today as a process enabling the student only in achieving certain scientific information. This is a point of view that totally ignores the student's creativity and imagination. It is essential that the student is able to deviate from the conventional path and think differently.

A few skills pertaining to this domain is given below-

Ø  Visualizing, formulating experiments

Ø  Relating objects and concepts in new ways

Ø  Identifying alternative/not usual uses for objects

Ø  Finding solution for problems and puzzles

Ø  Fantasizing

Ø  Designing instruments and machines

Ø  Dreaming'

Ø  Different thinking

ATTITUDINAL DOMAIN

One of the main aims of Science Education is the desirable change in attitudes and value teaching. It cannot be said that there is any benefit in daily life by science education if there is no substantial change in perspective of life and in the stand towards social or individual problems, even if concepts and process skills are attained. It is commonly seen in our country that even people who possess higher degrees in science adopt unscientific stands in day-to-day issues. Therefore science education should examine the problem of skill development in areas like attitudes, values, decision-taking etc, more closely.

factors that may be included in this domain -

Ø  Faith in one's abilities

Ø  Ability to understand human feelings and respect them

Ø  Expressing one's emotions and thoughts creatively

Ø  Thinking rationally about individual values and taking decisions accordingly.

APPLICATION DOMAIN

The concepts, processes and values become meaningless if the student cannot implement them in daily life. Similarly, pure scientific principles and concepts divorced from technology, will not have much relevance in daily life. Scientific information is seen to be irrelevant for the student if it is not related to daily life.

Ø  These are some factors in the Application domain:

·         Observing instances of science concepts in day-to-day life

·         Use the concepts and skills gained to solve problems related to life.

·         Create an idea of science concepts related to household appliances.

·         Ability to evaluate events and developments related to science

·         Take scientific decision on matters of food, health, life style etc.

·         Relating science to other subjects

NATURE OF SCIENCE DOMAIN

Science is an attempt to reveal the mystery of nature through systematic investigation. This involves applying thought, reasoning, logical thinking, critical thinking and so on. Scientific knowledge is tentative.   By interacting with the society, a child develops a variety of notions about the nature of science. A mere learning of scientific ideas and theories will not enable the learner to understand the nature of science. At the beginning stage, the student should go through concrete experiences that help him/her get acquainted with various aspects of nature. A learner who possesses the spirit of enquiry should be encouraged to discuss and share his/her findings with the peer group. At every point during the lesson the student should feel like asking 'How do you know that is right?' It is only when such questions arise that the curriculum and the textbook and the teaching are justified. The attributes of nature of science domain include :

Ø  Raising genuine questions

Ø  Methodology used in scientific research

Ø  Team approach in scientific research

Ø  The history of scientific ideas

Ø  The ways in which science builds understanding of the natural world.